TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE OR SECOND LANGUAGE
(EFL/ ESL) IN INDONESIA: TO IMPROVE THE SPEAKING SKILL
1). Introduction
Nowadays, along with
the strengthening position of English as a language for international
communication, the teaching of speaking skill has become increasingly important
in the English as a second or foreign language (ESL/EFL) context. The teaching
of speaking skill is also important due to the large number of students who
want to study English in order to be able to use English for communicative
purposes. A large percentage of the worlds language learners study English in
order to develop proficiency in speaking). Moreover, students of second/foreign
language education programs are considered successful if they can communicate
effectively in the language (Riggenback & Lazaraton, 1991). The new
parameter used to determine success in second/foreign language education
programs appears to revise the previously-held conviction that student’s
success or lack of success in ESL/EFL was judged by the accuracy of the
language they produced. Thus, the great number of learners wanting to develop
English speaking proficiency and the shift of criteria of learning success from
accuracy to fluency and communicative effectiveness signify the teaching of
ESL/EFL speaking.
2). Objectives
This essay presents a
review of the teaching of EFL speaking in the Indonesian context within the
broader perspective of ESL/EFL language teaching methodology. It aims to
examine whether or not the teaching of EFL speaking in Indonesia has been
informed by the theoretical framework of the ESL/EFL speaking pedagogy. It also
provides an account on which areas of teaching EFL speaking have not been much
investigated or explored in the literature. In order to achieve these purposes,
the following section will firstly discuss ESL/EFL speaking within the
historical perspective of the methodology of language teaching.
3). Review of Related Literature
ESL/ EFL
speaking and Language Teaching
The modern history of
language teaching started with the adoption of the approach used for teaching
Latin in European countries. Under the approach, known as the Grammar
Translation Method, the purpose to learn a language is primarily to read the
literature published in the language. As reading and writing considered to be
the focus of language teaching, the ability to speak a foreign language was
regarded as irrelevant. Speaking was then made the primary aim of language when
the Direct Method came. In the era of this method oral communication became the
basis of grading the language teaching programs. However, the Reading Approach
that followed believed that reading was the only language skill which could
really be taught within the available time. Thus, the essence of the teaching
of speaking or oral communication in the earlier days of language teaching
history depended on the approach which was in fashion during those days.
The primacy of speech
was once again insisted on in the era of the Audiolingual Method (ALM). Based
on the structural analysis of spoken language, this new, scientific
Audiolingual Method (Savignon, 1983) came to be known, won the day, and was
popular for many years. It believed that mimicry and memorization are the most
efficient route to second language use and it relied on active drill of the
structural patterns of the language. This view on language learning is
reflected in its conviction stating that language behavior is not a matter of
solving problems but of performing habits so well learned that they are
automatic. In short, the primacy of the oral language in the ALM was
unquestioned regardless of the goals of the learner. In other words, the mastery
of the fundamentals of the language must be through speech. The ALM was later
criticized for not providing language learners with the spontaneous use of the
target language. The mimicry, memorization, and pattern manipulation were said
to have questionable values if the goal of language teaching and learning was
the communication of ideas, the sharing of information. This has led to the
idea of communicative competence in language teaching which was emphasized by
another approach to language teaching coming later, that is, the Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT).
The Nature of
Communication
Communication is an
important part of human civilization and it is a means of cultural
transformation. Communication using languages can be conducted in two ways:
orally and in a written form. In the context of language learning, it is
commonly believed that to communicate in a written form (writing) is more
difficult than orally (speaking), suggesting that writing is a more complex
language skill than speaking. However, in reality, although the complexity of
spoken and written languages differs, the differences do not reveal that one is
easier than the other.
Unlike written
language, spoken language involves paralinguistic features such as tamber
(breathy, creaky), voice qualities, tempo, loudness, facial and bodily
gestures, as well as prosodic features such as intonation, pitch, stress, rhythm,
and pausing. Thus, spoken language which employs variability and flexibility is
in fact as complex as written language, meaning that each is complex in its own
way. Additionally, the two means of language communication are equally
important. It is speech, not writing, which serves as the natural means of
communication between members of community (Byrne, 1980), both for the
expression of thought and as a form of social behavior.
Writing is a means of
recording speech, in spite of its function as a medium of communication in its
own right. According to Harmer (1991:46-47), there are three reasons why people
communicate. First, people communicate because they want to say something. As
Harmer explained, the word want refers to intentional desire the speaker has in
order to convey messages to other people. Simply stated, people speak because
they just do not want to keep silent. Second, people communicate because they
have some communicative purpose. By having some communicative purpose it means
that the speakers want something to happen as a result of what they say. For
example, they may express a request if they need a help from other people or
they command if they want other people to do something. Thus, two things are
important in communicating: the message they wish to convey and the effect they
want it to have (Harmer, 2001:46). Finally, when people communicate, they
select from their language store. The third reason is the consequence of the
desire to say something (first reason) and the purpose in conducting communicative
activities (second reason). As they have language storage, they will select
language expressions appropriate to get messages across to other people.
Harmer (1991) added
that when two people communicate, each of them normally has something that they
need to know from the other. The interlocutor supplies information or knowledge
that the speaker does not have. Thus, in natural communication, people
communicate because there is an information gap between them, and they
genuinely need information from other people. In the context of EFL/ESL
learning, the ability to convey messages in natural communication is of paramount
importance. In order to communicate naturally, EFL/ESL learners need to acquire
communicative competence, an issue which is discussed in the following section.
Communicative
Competence in Language Teaching
The concept of
communicative competence developed under the views of language as context,
language as interaction, and language as negotiation. Learning to speak English
requires more than knowing its grammatical and semantic rules. Students need to
know how native speakers use the language in the context of structured
interpersonal exchange. In other words, effective oral communication requires
the ability to use the language appropriately in social interactions. Due to
the importance of the notion of communicative competence, a number of language
and language learning experts (e.g. Canale & Swain, 1980; Hymes, 1971)
elaborated the nature of this concept. Hymes s (1971) theory of communicative competence
consists of the interaction of grammatical, psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, and
probabilistic language components. For Canale and Swain (1980), communicative
competence includes four components of competence: grammatical competence,
discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence. In
the context of second/foreign language learning, Canale and Swain s
interpretation of communicative competence has been frequently referred to.
Speaking proficiency
is influenced by all four components of competence. Grammatical competence, the
first component, is linguistic competence, that is, the ability to perform the
grammatical well-formedness. It is mastery of the linguistic code, the ability
to recognize the lexical, morphological, syntactic, and phonological features
of a language and to manipulate these features to form words and sentences. In
the case of speaking activities, grammatical competence enables speakers to use
and understand English-language structures accurately, which in turn
contributes to their fluency. Another component is sociolinguistic competence,
which requires an understanding of the social context in which language is
used: the roles of the participants, the information they share, and the
function of interaction. This competence helps prepare speakers for effective and
appropriate use of the target language. They should employ the rules and norms
governing the appropriate timing and realization of speech acts. Understanding
the sociolinguistic side of language enables speakers to know what comments are
appropriate, how to ask questions during interaction and how to respond
nonverbally according to the purpose of the speaking.
In addition, students
need to develop discourse competence. This is concerned with the connection of
a series of sentences or utterances, or intersentential relationships, to form
a meaningful whole. To become effective speakers, students should acquire a
large repertoire of structures and discourse markers to express ideas. Using
this, students can manage turn taking in communication. In their review of a
discourse-based approach in the teaching of EFL speaking, the discourse-based
approach enables students to develop and utilize the basic elements of spoken
discourse in English involving not only a full linguistic properties but also
the knowledge of proposition, context and sociocultural norms underlying the
speech.
The fourth component
of communicative competence is strategic competence, that is, the ability to
employ strategies to compensate for imperfect knowledge of rules, be it
linguistic, sociolinguistic, or discourse rules. It is analogous to the need
for coping or survival strategies.
With reference to
speaking activities, strategic competence refers to the ability to keep a
conversation going. For example, when second/ foreign language learners
encounter a communication breakdown as they forget what a particular word in
the target language is to refer to a particular thing, they try to explain it
by mentioning the characteristics of the thing, thus employing a type of
communication strategies
The concept of
communicative competence as explained above implies also the essential purposes
of spoken language. Spoken language functions interactionally and
transactionally. Interactionally, spoken language is intended to maintain
social relationships, while transactionally, it is meant to convey information
and ideas. Speaking activities involve two or more people using the language
for either interactional or transactional purposes. Because much of our daily
communication remains interactional, interaction is the key to teaching
language for communication. In addition, as believed by the interaction
hypothesis in second language acquisition, learners learn faster through
interacting, or active use of language. It is also important to note that
interaction requires understanding of the social background of those involved
in communication. In her article addressing oral proficiency from the
intercultural perspective, when two parties are interacting, they need to
consider some sociocultural aspects that they bring with them, thus necessitating
the importance of intercultural understanding.
To summarize, it
becomes clear to us that speaking or oral communication has been considered an
important language skill for second/foreign language learners even though,
depending on the approaches and methods of language teaching, this skill was
not treated as equally important to the other language skills. It is also
apparent that, naturally, to speak is not only to convey a message that someone
else needs or to get information which has not been known, but, more
importantly, to interact with other people. The remainder of this article
focuses on the discussion of the teaching of EFL speaking in the Indonesian
context by using these two aspects (i.e., information gap and interaction) as
the pedagogical basis in the analysis of EFL speaking instruction. The
following section will first provide the background to speaking English in
Indonesia before other aspects of the practice of teaching of EFL speaking such
as activities, materials, and students oral proficiency, are discussed.
4). Analysis
Speaking English in the Indonesian
Context
Considering the
current status of English as a foreign language in Indonesia, not so many
people use it in their day-to-day communication. However, in certain
communities in this country English has been used for various reasons, leading
to the fact that some people use it as the second language. For example, in the
academic level, some of the scholars are quite familiar with English and
occasionally use it as a means for communicating. Those involved in the main
level of management such as bankers and government officials also use
code-mixing and code-switching in Indonesian and English. The use of English
among teenagers such as in seminars for youth or among middle-level workers in
the workplaces and the use of English by radio announcers or television
presenters can be easily found. Moreover, the development of tourism leads to
the growing number of people from this sector, such as tour guides and hotel
receptionists, who use English.
In spite of the fact
that more Indonesians use English in their daily life, many consider that
English instruction is a failure in this country. One of the reasons for the
failure is that there has been no unified national system of English education and,
therefore, improvements of English communicative ability are painstakingly made.
In reality, as the world is changing very rapidly towards a global village,
human resource development becomes a central issue and an ability to communicate
internationally is an important quality of the manpower.
Global market places
often require the ability to use English. The main challenge for this country
thus is to develop an educational system resulting in human quality competitive
at international level. This is relevant to the significant change that took
place in the real needs for English in Indonesia. The need for English ability
in the fifties and sixties was limited to academic purposes at the university
level. Today, individuals need English in order to communicate with others at
international forums. Accordingly, efforts need to be continuously made
concerning quality improvements of English instruction in Indonesia. More
particularly, curriculum of English education that can be effective to produce
graduates who are able to communicate at international level is needed.
The challenge to
compete at international level seems to have been thought of by some English
language teaching researchers or specialists. Although an ideal curriculum may
not be attempted in the near future, the challenge results in the application
of some classroom activities in the teaching of EFL speaking. The following
section examines the practice of teaching EFL speaking in the Indonesian
context as the efforts of developing students’ oral English proficiency.
5). Summary and
Recommendation
As one of the central
elements of communication, speaking needs special attention and instruction in
an EFL context like the one in Indonesia. Helping learners speak English
fluently and appropriately needs carefully prepared instruction (e.g.,
determining learning tasks, activities and materials) and a lot of practice
(i.e., either facilitated by the teachers in the classroom or independently
performed by the learners outside the classroom) due to minimal exposure to the
target language and contact with native speakers in the context.
We have attempted to
review the teaching practice and the research of EFL speaking in the Indonesian
context. The review indicates that various classroom activities and teaching
materials have been created, selected, and implemented to promote Indonesian
learners EFL speaking proficiency.
However, a number of
linguistic and non-linguistic factors need to be considered in conducting
speaking classes. Since there has been no unified national system concerning
the development of oral proficiency in the English instruction, future programs
and research should be directed toward providing rigorous guidance in
developing competent speakers of English, involving considerations of
components underlying speaking effectiveness, factors affecting successful oral
communication, and ways of improving speaking abilities.
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Name: Nafiah Nur Fitriana
SRN: 2201410130
Rombel: 205-206